0317

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Direct and Indirect Speech

• Introduction
• tense changes
• changes of time and place reference

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The Ass and His Shadow 


  A TRAVELER hired an Ass to convey him to a distant place.  The
day being intensely hot, and the sun shining in its strength, the
Traveler stopped to rest, and sought shelter from the heat under
the Shadow of the Ass.  As this afforded only protection for one,
and as the Traveler and the owner of the Ass both claimed it, a
violent dispute arose between them as to which of them had the
right to the Shadow.  The owner maintained that he had let the
Ass only, and not his Shadow.  The Traveler asserted that he had,
with the hire of the Ass, hired his Shadow also.  The quarrel
proceeded from words to blows, and while the men fought, the Ass
galloped off.


In quarreling about the shadow we often lose the substance.

0314

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Determiners

Difference words
other, another

Question words
Which, what, whose

Defining words
which, whose

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 The Ass and his Purchaser


  A man who wanted to buy an Ass went to market, and, coming across
a likely-looking beast, arranged with the owner that he should be
allowed to take him home on trial to see what he was like. When he
reached home, he put him into his stable along with the other asses.
The newcomer took a look round, and immediately went and chose a place
next to the laziest and greediest beast in the stable. When the master
saw this he put a halter on him at once, and led him off and handed
him over to his owner again. The latter was a good deal surprised to
seem him back so soon, and said, "Why, do you mean to say you have
tested him already?" "I don't want to put him through any more tests,"
replied the other. "I could see what sort of beast he is from the
companion he chose for himself."


"A man is known by the company he keeps."

0307, 0310, 0311, 0312, 0313

FUNCTION AND CLASSES OF DETERMINERS

Function

Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to.

The word 'people' by itself is a general reference to some group of human beings. If someone says 'these people', we know which group they are talking about, and if they say 'a lot ofpeople' we know how big the group is.

'These' and 'a lot of' are determiners in these sentences.

Classes of Determiners

There are several classes of determiners:

Definite and Indefinite articles
the, a, an

Demonstratives

this, that, these, those

Possessives
my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Quantifiers
a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc.

Numbers
one, ten, thirty, etc.

Distributives
all, both, half, either, neither, each, every

Difference words
other, another

Question words
Which, what, whose

Defining words
which, whose

The following words are pre-determiners. They go before determiners, such as articles: such and what, half, rather, quite

0306

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Determiners

THE, A, AN


Definite and Indefinite articles
the, a, an

• Definite article: THE
• Indefinite article: A/AN
• Exceptions to using the definite article

0305

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Adverbs

• Relative adverbs - which,what,whose
• Time

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The Apes and the Two Travelers 


  TWO MEN, one who always spoke the truth and the other who told
nothing but lies, were traveling together and by chance came to
the land of Apes.  One of the Apes, who had raised himself to be
king, commanded them to be seized and brought before him, that he
might know what was said of him among men.  He ordered at the
same time that all the Apes be arranged in a long row on his
right hand and on his left, and that a throne be placed for him,
as was the custom among men.  After these preparations he
signified that the two men should be brought before him, and
greeted them with this salutation:  "What sort of a king do I seem
to you to be, O strangers?'  The Lying Traveler replied, "You seem
to me a most mighty king."  "And what is your estimate of those
you see around me?'  "These," he made answer, "are worthy
companions of yourself, fit at least to be ambassadors and
leaders of armies."  The Ape and all his court, gratified with the
lie, commanded that a handsome present be given to the flatterer. 
On this the truthful Traveler thought to himself, "If so great a
reward be given for a lie, with what gift may not I be rewarded,
if, according to my custom, I tell the truth?'  The Ape quickly
turned to him.  "And pray how do I and these my friends around me
seem to you?'  "Thou art," he said, "a most excellent Ape, and all
these thy companions after thy example are excellent Apes too."
The King of the Apes, enraged at hearing these truths, gave him

over to the teeth and claws of his companions.  

0304

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Adverbs

• Certainty
• Viewpoint, commenting
• Interrogative - why,where,how,when

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The Ant and the Grasshopper


  In a field one summer's day a Grasshopper was hopping about,
chirping and singing to its heart's content.  An Ant passed by,
bearing along with great toil an ear of corn he was taking to the
nest.

  "Why not come and chat with me," said the Grasshopper,
"instead of toiling and moiling in that way?"

  "I am helping to lay up food for the winter," said the Ant,
"and recommend you to do the same."

  "Why bother about winter?" said the Grasshopper; we have got
plenty of food at present."  But the Ant went on its way and
continued its toil.  When the winter came the Grasshopper had no
food and found itself dying of hunger, while it saw the ants
distributing every day corn and grain from the stores they had
collected in the summer.  Then the Grasshopper knew:


It is best to prepare for the days of necessity.

0303

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Adverbs


Function: How to use adverbs...
Form: Where adverbs go...
Comparative forms: comparing using adverbs...
Kinds of adverbs
          Adverbs of manner
          Adverbs of place
          Adverbs of time
          Adverbs of certainty           

• Degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc

          Interrogative adverbs
          Relative adverbs
          Viewpoint and commenting adverbs

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The Ant and the Dove 


  AN ANT went to the bank of a river to quench its thirst, and
being carried away by the rush of the stream, was on the point of
drowning.  A Dove sitting on a tree overhanging the water plucked
a leaf and let it fall into the stream close to her.  The Ant
climbed onto it and floated in safety to the bank.  Shortly
afterwards a birdcatcher came and stood under the tree, and laid
his lime-twigs for the Dove, which sat in the branches.  The Ant,
perceiving his design, stung him in the foot.  In pain the
birdcatcher threw down the twigs, and the noise made the Dove
take wing.



One good turn deserves another